A. fastest ground transportation (bullet trains over 100 mph),
B. smallest (miniaturization, e.g.
electronics, bonzai, etc.),
C. most modern (Asian country),
D. most educated (100% literacy, more than 500 colleges, universities, and
graduate schools, 600 junior colleges),
E. most dangerous natural habitat (Japans thousands of islands are volcanic
mountaintops w/ over 1,500 earthquakes/yr, volcanic eruptions, etc.),
F. most enigmatic origins (Ainu people),
G. most crowded (Tokyo more than 20,000 people/sq mi),
H. most feared and hated during wartime (by the Chinese, Koreans, U.S....nearly
annihilated by atomic and conventional weapons, the brunt of severe racism),
I. the most successful business sense (all of Asia, most of the world currently
trying to copy Japans policies and practices),
J. best martial arts (good example of borrow and improve upon tradition)
K. fastest rise to world prominence (was a feudal land 150 yrs ago, now a
member of the Tri-Lateral Commission)
L. most adaptable culture on Earth (religion, technology, arts, literature,
etc.. .improving upon and adapting these phenomena to Japanese needs and wants
so that the end product is usually significantly different, often better than
the original)
I. Fact and Fantasy A. some facts
1. geographical area: 146,000 sq. mi. (378,000 sq. km.), about the size of the state of California, one three-hundredths of the Earths
land area, yet wields one-sixth of the worlds economic might. Member of the
Tri-Lateral Commission w/ North America and Western Europe.
2. oldest pottery vessels on Earth, Jomon period, c. 6kya (illustrated on
p. 341 of anthology)
3. pop. 126,070,000, 99.4% Japanese ethnically (purest nation on Earth)
4. adult literacy rate, nearly 100% (highest on Earth)
5. life expectancy at birth: 77 male, 83 female
6. w/ North America and Western Europe, the third economic force on Earth
7. no significant drug problem, no homelessness, very low unemployment, no
slums, few class distinctions
8. of all nations, Japan has come closest to complete annihilation; only nation
ever to suffer nuclear attack (U.S. lost 2 or 3 thousand in the WTC/Pentagon
attack, Japan lost 90,000 immediate deaths in Hiroshima and 50,000 deaths
in Nagasaki w/ hundreds of thousands of later deaths directly attributable
to the attacks).
9. except for the treatment of the American Indians, only the Japanese have
been encarcerated in camps and considered as internal enemies by the U.S.
B. some fantasies
1. aspirations of world domination
2. purchase of Japanese products displaces U.S. (or other) workers
3. malicious fighters, mercilessly competitive in economics and politics
4. economic success somehow attributable solely to the character and personality
of the Japanese...rather look at post-WWII prevention of Japanese militarization
that the U.S. took over so military spending is less than 1% of GNP per year
while U.S. is over 1/3 of GNP. Also large infusion of U.S. and other money
into reconstruction after WWII II.
Ecology: The Basis of Culture A. theoretical orientation in Anthropology (define
anthro)
1. Julian Stewards Cultural Ecology (define and discuss)
A. core features (those related to subsistence activity)
B. secondary features (all others, such as family structure, religion, arts
and crafts, politics, etc.)
2. the power of using a theoretical orientation as an analytical tool
B. Japans ecology
1. geographical setting...outstanding features (show map)
a. archipelago...made up of a group of islands, so that the only significant
natural resource is fish
b. small size of the entire country...so expansionism for land and resources
is a motivational factor in Japanese history from the 1600s onward (Momoyama
period invasion of Korea) later China, Russia, Southeast Asia, Pacific Islands,
etc.
c. islands are volcanic mountaintops...one of the most geologically unstable
areas of Earth; part of the ring of fire
d. confined islands fostered internal historical conflict where competing
warlords vied for control of scarce territory (cultural emphesis on martial
arts, the art of war, loyalty to military leaders, the cultivation of scarce
land in agriculture and in gardening, etc. (miniaturization is built into
Japanese culture)
2. cultural adaptation
a. land is sacred
b. utilization of land is extremely efficient (every spare foot of space,
not paved or built upon, is under cultivation)
c. policy emphasis throughout time on the value of land and territory
III. Geography of Japan
A. four main islands: Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, w/ over three
thousand adjacent, smaller islands
B. topographically, Japan is largely mountainous (192 volcanic peaks, more
than 1/4 have erupted in recorded history). More than 1,500 earthquakes per
year on average. More than 1/10 of all active volcanoes on Earth are in Japan.
1. plains and basins account for less than 25% of the total land area
2. entire archipelago traversed by mountain ridge which separates the Pacific
Ocean side of Japan from the Sea of Japan side of the country
3. Mt. Fuji (not Mt. Fujiyama) highest elevation 12,389 ft. (3,776 m)
4. 16% of the land is arable (China is 11%, U.S. 25%), most of the rest of
Japan is made up of uninhabitable precipitous mountain ranges (71%). This
affords great beauty and natural splendor throughout the country.
5. habitable flatlands are incredibly overcrowded as a result
a. Tokyo-Yokohama megalopolis (27 cities w/in this region)
b. Nagoya complex has 20 cities
c. Kobe-Kyoto-Osaka industrial area w/ other two constitute southeastern three
main coastal basins (housing and employing over 50 million people), one of
the most-densely populated areas on Earth
C. agriculture
1. land is not particularly fertile, but long growing season, plentiful rainfall,
high agricultural skills, nearly unlimited human agricultural labor, dedication
to hard work (90 times more workers per acre than in U.S.)
2. wet-rice farming (labor intensive), double cropping
3. labor intensity resulted in strong group cohesion (my MA thesis), group
identification, group action
4. 40% of agricultural land devoted to wet-rice farming
a. word for rice gohan also work for meal
b. eaten at all three meals each day until recently
5. extremely productive...two to four times the per acre yield of Southeast
and South Asia
6. current switch from night soil to chemical fertilizers
7. at end of WWII, about 50% of Japanese worked in agriculture, now about
15% (about 4% in U.S. now)
8. govt protects agric. by strictly controlling food imports
9. principal protein fish until recently, w/ veget. + seaweed
IV. Cultural Characteristics (watch stereotyping, define modal personality
traits), from the anthology p. 308ff, these traits can be linked to Japans
2,000 yr. history and the religious, ethical, philosophical traditions we
will examine shortly:
A. imitative...copy what works, no matter where it comes from
B. preventive...long-range over short-term planning, emphasis on testing products,
etc. before shipping, so a high degree of satisfaction w/ products, e.g. Japanese
cars, electronics today
C. pragmatic...careful analysis and constant refinement of policies and procedures
in politics, economics, etc.
D. obligative...profound sense of duty (partly from the adoption of Confucianism)
more on this later in the course. As the anthology indicates, millions of
Japanese voluntarily work overtime w/o pay to honor their companies and to
keep from letting fellow workers down
E. inquisitive...watch the Japanese tourist to see the level of curiosity.
Over 6 million Japanese travel overseas every year for schooling, business,
vacation, etc. Love for all things foreign.
F. emphasis on schooling and knowledge...6 days/week of school
1. schooling fulfills students obligation to their families (240 days/yr vs.
U.S. 180/yr) Summer vacation is 6 wks vs. U.S. 2 mos or more
2. upgrading of education (beg. of 20th cent) resulted in a high
school grad knowing as much as a college grad elsewhere. B.A. same as M.A.,
etc.
3. juku or cram schools (bushiban in Taiwan) to prepare for exams for entrance
to higher education and for preparation for imp. tests such as TOEFL
V. Similarities and Differences Between Japan and China A.Similarities
1. geography...isolated, general scarcity of arable land
2. religion...Buddhism, partly absorbed, partly replaced (Zen)
3. elaboration of rituals...tea ceremony, paper folding, Bonzai trees, garden
design, social interaction, etc.
4. hostile first encounters with the west
5. Japanese adoption of Chinese writing, political and economic structures,
kinship, arts, crafts, etc.
6. patriarchal societies
B. differences
1. literati in Japan were also martial artists (not in China)
2. Japan acceptance of things foreign, Chinas rejection of things foreign
(major exception is Buddhism)
3. Chinas conservative maintainance of tradition, Japans rejection of tradition
4. sheer size (China large, Japan small)
5. Shinto religion
6. Japan is poor in resources (except people and water)
I. Intro to Archeology
A. definition...the reconstruction of extinct cultures based on an analysis
of their material remains and the surrounding habitat
1. site...a location of archeological interest
2. artifact...something made or used by people
3. feature...something made or used by people that cannot be moved without
destroying it; studied in situ
4. ecofact...biotic material used by humans
5. over 1 billion dollars U.S. spent in Japan on arch per year vs. NSF
c. 3 million dollars per year
B. dating methods (relative and absolute)
C. Japanese creation myth (says a great deal about the people) Divine bro
and sis who gave birth to the islands and a number of other dieties (read
from Henshall, p. 1...Izanagi and Izanami).
II. Prehistory...defin
A. Homo erectus in Asia, probably in Japan (islands connected to the continent
during Pleistocene (Ice Age)
B. earliest verifiable material at this time in Japan...Jomon
1. article in anthology...Nittano coastal hunting and gathering
costal site
2. Jomon post-clacial hunting-gathering (h-g) society dtd from c. 10k to 300
BC (over 35k sites in Eastern Japan so far)
C. Jomon culture
1. subsistence...h-g
a. fishing, both oceanic and fresh water, shell middens, obsidian blades,
etc.
b. hunted boar, hare, antelope, monkey, other mammals
c. gathered both edible and medicinal plants (e.g. nuts, fruits, berries,
seeds, root crops)
2. sexual division of labor
3. artifacts (see anthology, chord-marked pottery), osteodontokeratic + wood
4. dwelling (anthology, p. 342)
D. Yayoi c. 300 BC-300 AD...named after a site in Tokyo where first identified
and named this group.
1. wheel-made pots and agriculture (plow, fertilizer, and irrigation), also
metallurgy (bronze and iron)
2. invasion from the mainland, lighter, taller people
3. increasing wealth from agriculture, estates, warfare begins
4. slavery
5. most of this kingdom history is gleaned from Chinese written documents
(transition to historical period)
a. Han Shu ,history of the Han dynasty mentions this culture, printed in 82
AD, refers to the Land of Wa (dwarfs) w/ over 100 kingdoms
b. Wei Chih, history of the Wei (one of the three kingdoms) 240 AD, more detailed,
under Eastern Barbarians w/ Koreans and Manchurians
6. records of women rulers in many of these kingdoms
7. early spirituality was animistic (see anthology p. 352) Uji (great
families worshipped natural phenomena called kami...forces and conspicuous
aspects of nature (one of the most logical spiritual systems on Earth)...
This sytem later evolves into Shinto.
E. early state emerges...Kofun/Yamato period (c. 300-710 AD) referred to as
the Tomb culture in the Morton text p. 8.
1. define the state...attributes:
a. centralized power, economy
b. rise of urbanization
c. taxation, standing army
d. beginning of literacy (taxation, conscription)
e. increasing social stratification
f. trade networks, etc.
2. large tombs, huge earthen mounds to 1500 ft length and
120 ft high (similar to those in NE Asia and Korea),
corvee labor
3. Haniwa pottery (animals, humans, often engaged in war)
good preservation (anthology p. 348)
4. Chinese reference to female shamans (and women
rulers) during this period
5. Prince Shotoku early 600s, adopted Chinese Buddhism, new constitution
based on Chinese model (centralized
state), Confucian values, etc. Japanese students to China strong Chinese influence
F. Taika reforms after Shotokus death in 622 (second wave of Chinese
influence
1. capitol established near present Osaka, copy of the Chinese
2. taxation, laws, etc. from China established
3. early 700s, capitol moved to Nara
III. The Historic Period Begins
A. Nara patterned after the Chinese Great Tang dynasty
1. capitol modeled after Chang An, greatest city on Earth
at the time (5x6 miles in size) (710 AD)
2. 794 Heian (modern city of Kyoto) (see anthology pp357ff)
3. gagaku (Tang dances and music) adopted at court, still
used in official ceremonies, long after China abandoned these practices
4. during this period, the Ainu were neutralized in northern
Japan
5. art flourished, esp. Buddhist, bronze, wood, clay, and lacquer
sculpture, oldest wooden bldgs. in world, great bronze statuary, etc.
6. large tombs declined w/ acceptance of Buddhist cremation
(great savings in scarce land as well)
B. Fujiwara period 858-1160...one family, Fujiwara succeeds in
gaining control over various warring estates
1. almost immediately, centralized govt began to disintegrate
w/ the decline of law and order
2. advances in other areas (see anthology) while c. 200 yrs
of political chaos prevailed
3. nobility lived in luxury (effete and effeminate p. 374)
4. Buddhism spread and some branches began practicing martial
arts
5. Ninth century, kana system of writing evolved
a. whole characters in abbreviated form called hirakana
b. selected parts of characters written cursively called katakana
6. see anthology for written language discussion p. 375ff
I. Definitions: feudalism (a political/economic
system of lords and vassals held on condition of homage and service), vassal
(holds land from a feudal lord in exchange for homage and service)
II. Warlordism prevailed A. institutionalization of the samurai (provincial
warrior) class
1. shogun (military leader in the provinces, who took on more and more of
the economic and political functions in their provinces)
2. shogunate was family based (developed between the ninth and twelfth centuries),
principal families were the Minamoto and the Taira
3. unlike the knights of feudal Europe w/ a mounted, heavily-armored warrior
supported by many footmen, in Japan we have a mounted, well-armored warrior
armed with bow, spear, and swords (not a lance)
4. bushi (warrior) also known as samurai (retainer) (drawing
in anthology, p. 381)
III. The
Kamakura period begins w/ defeat of the Taira family by the
Minamoto in 1185 (when anthology says true feudalism began) p. 383. 1221 Shokyu War, consolidates
power of Minamoto
A. 1232 codified feudal law in Japan w/ Joei code
B. Kamakura falls in 1333
1. Mongol invasions (overran most of Asia and much of Europe, Korea by 1258,
China by 1279)
2. Khubilai Khan (supreme leader of the Mongols) demanded Japans surrender
in 1266
3. attacked Japan in 1274 w/ c. 30k Korean and Mongol warriors. Mongols turned
back by unfavorable weather (Divine Wind...kamikaze)
4. Khubilai again attacked in 1281 w/ 140k soldiers (text says probably the
largest overseas expedition in the world). Typhoon hit and destroyed the fleet...
kamikaze again! (Japanese think of their nation as divinely protected as a
result)
C. Office of Shogun begins (supreme military commander on behalf of
the emperor)
D. the founder of the Kamakura, Minamoto Yoritomo, one of the greatest men
in the history of Japan (Morton p. 69)
IV. The Ashikaga period, c.
1336-1573...less affluent than the Kamakura
A. famines, uprisings, much internal strife and warfare... feudalism decentralized
during this time
B. foreign trade increased during this period (books, pictures, coinage were
imported; lacquerware, fans, weapons, esp. swords were exported, 37,000 swords
in 1483 alone!)
C. art flourished during the Ashikaga (chapter 9, Morton)
1. architecture, literature, tea ceremony, No and Kabuki theater
were popularized, gardens, bonzai, etc.
2. Zen Buddhism w/ meditation as a means to enlighten- ment (zazen
sitting in meditation to achieve satori or enlightenment)
3. Zen of everything...essence of activity regardless of how mundane it may
seem (meditation and mokuso in Karate)
D. Christianity arrived during the Ashikaga period
1. Portuguese arrived in 1542
2. Jesuits in 1549, also Nestorians, Franciscans (some degree of success w/
conversion)
3. 1588, first banishment of Christians (talk of Japanese sold into slavery
abroad by the Portuguese and some reports of damaged Buddhist shrines by Christians)
E. one great leader of the Ashikaga, Hideoyoshi, conquered Korea in 1592;
only kept it for a few years, China stepped in and helped to drive the Japanese
out in 1598
F. the century 1534-1615 was one of the bloodiest in Japanese history, finally,
about 250 yrs of warlordism ended w/ the establishment of the next era
1. Ronin (lordless samurai, often turned to banditry to survive) (anthology,
p. 429)
2. wonderfully portrayed in some of the best Japanese movies (directed by
Kurasawa, often starring Toshiro Mifune)
V. The Tokugawa Shogunate
a centralized feudal state
A. Daimyo (territorial lords) spent part of each year at the Shoguns
court at Edo (modern Tokyo). Families stayed in Edo when the Daimyo
returned to their homelands (held as hostages)
1. one military leader, Nobunaga 1576, confiscated all weapons to preclude
uprisings (origin of karate on Okinawa)
2. Hideyoshi 1585 stabilized the govt (anthology 418ff)
B. persecution of Christians (occasional slaughters and banish- ments; 1620
and 1637)
C. a period of Japanese isolation begins (no one allowed to leave no foreigners
permitted to enter)
D. Neo-Confucianism stressed loyalty and obedience
E. merchant class became rich and powerful
F. another flourishing of art and literature, e.g. the Haiku poems
landscape painting (Hokusai, Hiroshige, Sharaku, Utamaro, and others), netsuke
(miniature carvings), etc.
G. great influence of Dutch learning (things foreign, mainly from the Dutch,
such as weapons, mapmaking, navigation, European fashion and culture, etc.)
H. 1853 Commodore Perry and the U.S. Navy arrives, Treaty of Kanagawa: ports
were opened to trade, shipwrecked U.S. sailors were to receive good treatment,
and an American consul was established
I. branching of martial arts (many different types: judo, karate, aikido,
jujitsu, bo, sai, kendo, etc.)
J. elaboration of the geisha (define and discuss)
I. Definitions:
A. politics=the study of the distribution of power within a society
and the ways in which power is maintained
B. types of political systems:
1. band=egalitarian, decentralized, face-to-face, decisions made by consensus
2. tribe=egalitarian, decentralized, group of bands
3. chiefdom=stratified, centralized, hereditary leadership, (e.g. feudal Japan
under various clan rule)
4. state=stratified, centralized, bureaucratic, hierarchical, early states
were theocracies, primary function is self-preservation
II. Traditional Japanese politics
A. prehistory and early historic periods (Jomon, Yayoi, and Nara to c. 600
A.D.)...band, tribe, then chiefdom
B. with the rise of
the state (Heian, middle 800s), shift to centralized political power
C. several periods of internal wars and strife, but the state continued to
the present
D. as the anthology indicates (p. 458), Japan never experienced American-style
democracy; absolute obedience and loyalty was always demanded of all but the
highest rulers
1. of course, in prehistory, true democracy prevailed
2. no inalienable rights, no representative government
E. abuse of power was checked by a strong sense of ethics on the part of political
leaders, while honesty and a high standard of administrative efficiency served
to enrich political function
F. sharing of power among various leaders was common as exemplified by the
Kamakura in the 13th century with various councils
III. After the Meiji Restoration begins in the 1860s, with moderniza- tion,
Japan follows the leaders known as genro or elder statesmen, few of whom aspire for despotic
absolutism
IV. Features of Japans political system
A. a long tradition of cooperation
B. a rather high literacy rate (more politically astute citizenry)
C. strong entrepreneurial spirit (esp. after the Tokugawa period in the mid-1800s)
D. even peasants demanded a political voice in the 1800s
E. the Emperor was (and continues to be) largely a figurehead (prohibited
from political activism by the new constitutions)
F. the Diet (parliamentary system modeled after the British) made up of a
House of Representatives and a House of Peers (after the British House of
Lords)
G. there is a Prime Minister, w/ his cabinet, a Supreme Court, and all towns,
cities, and villages are divided into local govt bodies
I. Introduction to Japanese language
A. defines reality...very difficult to appreciate a world view without fluency
in the language; Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
B. Altaic linguistic family (from Mongolia) w/ Turkish, Mongolian, Manchu
(of the last Chinese dynasty, the Ching), and Korean. Closely related to European
languages of Asian origin (Hungarian and Finnish) and many similarities to
the South Indian Dravidian language group.
C. Chinese, on the other hand, belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family of languages
(the largest number of speakers on Earth), includes all the Sinitic languages
of China (dozens of dialects), plus Tibetan, Burmese, Thai, and Vietnamese
1. Chinese is tonal and monosyllabic (give examples)
2. Japanese has no tones and is polysyllabic (examples)
D. Japanese is the only official language of the country, thus bringing the
people together, however, Japanese has never been an international language,
it is not officially spoken outside of Japan, thereby serving to isolate Japan
from the rest of the world.
II. Chinese and English, the two most influencial foreign languages in Japan,
couldnt be more different from Japanese in both structure and phonetics. The
first written Japanese used Chinese characters, and this presented a near-impossible
task of representing Japanese sounds with Chinese characters.
A. though all Japanese study English for about six years beginning in 7th
grade, few attain fluency. Most can only repeat memorized common phrases w/
a strong Japanese accent (anthology, p. 524)
B. another problem, only several thousand westerners speak fluent Japanese
(very difficult to learn Japanese due to unique structure of the language)
C. likewise, it is very difficult for Japanese to learn most other languages.
The tonality of Chinese and the stress indicators of English present a difficult
challenge to Japanese who have neither tones not stress indicators in their
language.
D. neither Chinese nor English used agglutination to form words as the Japanese
do (a series of inflections that specify mood, voice, perfect or imperfect,
negative or positive, degree of politeness, etc.) E.g. kaku (to write) becomes
kakanakatta (did not write), and kakaserare- mashiteraba (if it were politely
caused to be written) (anthology, p. 528).
E. from the 6th through the 9th centuries, the Japanese
took on Chinese culture through the language and began to experience the difficulties
of using Chinese characters.
F. 9th centurys kana system (phonetic syllabary) helped a great
deal
III. Foreign words in Japanese
A. mostly English, some French, German, much Chinese
B. show the influence of other nations (anthology, p. 531ff)
IV. Teaching English in Japan...problems since its geared to passing exams
for school entrance and other career goals, not taught for conversation or
communication
A. more than 50,000 English teachers in Japan, most cannot actually speak
English
B. should begin studying English earlier and revise instruction for fluency
instead of exam preparation
V. Literature...about as old as English literature (since c. 700 A.D.), some
of the longest novels and shortest poems (would have been more extensive if
a different language group had first contacted Japan (ancient China did not
use a phonetic alphabet)
A. anthology article by Keene discusses early works from the Ancient Period
(begins w/ establishment of the capital at Kyoto in 794)
B. traces of Chinese influence...but there are traces of Greek and Roman influence
in most European literary traditions, as well
1. Japanese wrote novels centuries before the Chinese
2. Japanese poetry is quite distinct from the Chinese
3. Japanese theater ranks with the great achievements of the world (Chinese
theater is only known to a few select specialists outside China)
C. much of the early literature (poetry, diaries, novels, etc.) was written
by women (the most famous of this era, The Tales of Genji by Lady Murasaki,
written c. 1000 A.D.; 800 verses, c. 2,500 pgs)
D. literary themes provide great historical insight, e.g. samurai themes of
the bloody Heian and Kamakura eras, and the focus on merchant themes during
the Tokugawa
E. some important features of Japanese literature
1. poetry doesnt rhyme (unlike the Chinese)
2. strong influence of Zen (nature, simplicity, shocking revelations, stark
contrasts, etc.)
3. often lacking a formal plot...rather random observation and experience
4. gentle humor, delicate emotion, subtle melancholy
5. images blend into images
6. many white spaces like unpainted canvas in a composition
7. often dealt with sacred themes and was therefore thought to be other-worldly
by many people
VI. Poetry
A. introduction (read the excerpt from 905 A.D. quoted in anthology, p. 491)...
1. common theme, like in most cultures, is love and love affairs, or nature
(both in gentle melancholy)
2. some styles use strict syllable count...e.g. tanka uses 31 syllables, while
haiku contains 17
3. does not translate well, should be read in the original but some
translators are better than others...suggest Arthur Waley
4. linked verse, renga (three lines, answered by two more) can be written
by two people (p. 496)
5. haiku (making an independent poem of the opening verse of the renga) 17
syllables in three lines (read some examples); consists of a general condition
followed by a momentary perception
VII. Theater...four major forms
A. No (or Noh), with 14th and 15th century plays
1. Ezra Pound, Arthur Waley translations
2. Yeats popularized No for western audiences
3. singing, dancing, music, mostly two actors backed by a chorus and musicians
(similar to Greek theater)
4. masks are worn; old ones are national treasures
B. Joruri or puppet theater, 17th and 18th century storylines
1. unique to Japan that puppet theater achieved such a high level of popularity
and influence
2. puppeteers are in plain sight, but, dressed in black, are ignored by the
audience; some puppets require up to three operators or puppeteers
3. puppets sometimes reach several feet in height
4. joruri influenced other forms of theater (live actors learn to move like
puppets and mime dehumanizes the actors)
C. Kubuki, 17th century to the present, lyrical drama
1. more ribald themes than No plays
2. more appealing to the masses
D. modern drama
1. initially inspired by western influence, now modern drama is uniquely Japanese
VIII. The Novel...10th century to the present (one of the oldest
on Earth)
A. Tales of Ise 10th century, Tale of Genji, others based on travel,
diaries, poems, great drama, etc.
B. middle ages...loneliness, melancholy, warfare; ukiyo (sad or floating world)
literature
I. Introduction
A. Most philosophical systems are based on spiritual or religious beliefs,
answering such questions as What is the meaning of life?, What is death?,
Why is there sickness and misfortune?, etc.
B. functions of religion (and philosophy), within any society:
1. answer unanswerable questions
2. reduce anxiety
3. sanction human conduct (allied with the state)
4. promote social solidarity
5. explain reality (philosophical context)
C. Japanese religion consists, like in most cultures, of a mix of indigenous
and borrowed beliefs
1. indigenous beliefs...animism and ancestor worship (common to many cultures),
origin of Shintoism
2. borrowed beliefs...mostly from China, Buddhism, Confucianism, and, from
the west, Christianity
3. a third category...modern blends of beliefs incorporating elements of indigenous
and borrowed traditions
D. In Japan, the trend toward secularism (Earthliness focus on this life rather
than a preoccupation with death, afterlife, or heavenly beings) began over
three centuries ago, so religion is more peripheral to Japanese culture than
in most other cultures
1. emphasis on Confucianism (largely a secular belief system rather than a
spiritual framework)
2. like with many Asian societies, Japanese do not believe in spiritual specificity
as in the west (most Japanese self-identify both as Shintoists and Buddhists
(up to 90% or more) while continuing to practice other forms of spirituality
simultaneously
II. Buddhism
A. close to Christianity (afterlife, salvation, damnation, etc.)
B. Mahayana form (greater vehicle), three major types in Japan
1. esoteric Buddhism stressed ritual and art
2. Amida (Buddha of the pure land or Western Paradise sects or the Lotus Sutra
sects) believe all sentient beings can attain salvation (nirvana or satori)
including animals, birds, insects, etc.
3. Pure Land Sect (Jodoshu), the True Pure Land Sect (Shinshu), or the Nichiren
Sect...more commonly known as Zen Buddhism (salvation through meditation and
contemplation) (zazen=sitting in meditation; and koan=nonsense conundrums)
C. history
1. arrived in 6th century
2. various episodes of popularity and of persecution
3. Tokugawa forced everyone to register at a Buddhist temple (so as to root
out Christians) thereby spreading its influence
D. Zen (several articles in the anthology), D.T. Suzuki (worlds foremost authority)
article What is Zen? and Zen and the Samurai, plus sections of Herrigels famous
book Zen and the Art of Archery
1. strive for satori (wu in Chinese) nirvana in Hindi (salvation or enlightenment)
difference from western tradition, one neednt die to attain it
2. concrete experience (action) one path to satori, must be experienced by
the subject, cannot be taught
3. the other path is verbal (koans) enigmatic nonsense (the sound of one hand
clapping)...seek to transcend this world of chaos in caleidoscopic flux...the
monkey in the tree perception of reality based on the human intellect (thinking
misses the point)
4. good amount of Taoist influence here too (e.g. It cannot be taught, but
must grow from within)
5. Haiku poetry is linked to Zen
6. connection with the samurai (intuition rather than thought and emotion),
focus on transcendence, willpower
7. books such as the Hagakure promote the idea of the willingness to give
ones life without remorse, release from thoughts of death (go into the fire
in karate), etc.
8. focus is not victory or defeat, but resolute dedication to the willingness
to die
9. anthology, p. 587, when thoughts are quieted down, fire itself is cool
and refreshing (monk suicides by burning)
III. Shinto...outgrowth of indigenous Japanese animism, the worship of kami,
spirits of nature where humans were seen as part of nature not above it
A. history
1. ancestor worship of local uji (clan)
2. focus on fertility, prayer, and festivals, all linked to nature
3. shrines marked by torii (gateways)
4. no theology, emphesis on ritual
purity
B. most Japanese are a comfortable mix of Shinto and Buddhist beliefs and
practices (most Asians never adopted the western concept of spiritual exclusivity)
1. there were fluctuations in popularity of both belief systems, e.g. Shintoism
waned with the popularity of foreign (Chinese) influence beginning in the
early Nara period (600s), when, like Christianity in Europe, Buddhism became
the vehicle for the introduction of the entire Chinese cultural package
2. Buddhism flourished until the overthrow of the Tokugawa and the establishment
of the Meiji Restoration and the divinity of the emperor in 1868 (Shinto is
popularized)
3. hypernationalism of Shinto was suppressed during U.S. occupation after
WWII, but many national shrines continue to be very popular (Ise, the Meiji
and Yasukuni Shrines)
4. many Japanese homes have a small Shinto/Buddhist altars for offerings of
food, wine, and incense
IV. Christianity is often presented as the third religion of Japan (after
Shinto and Buddhism), though despite hundreds of years of evangelism, less
than 1% of the Japanese are Christian (equally divided between Catholic and
various Protestant denominations) A. fluctuating popularity and suppression
1. Saint Francis Xavier 1549 introduced Christianity and it spread rapidly
2. Hideyoshi (early Tokugawa, late 1500s) expels Christian missionaries, martyrs
many Japanese Christians, virtually eradicated by 1638
3. dropped the prohibition in the late 1800s, revival of interest and conversion
began (with rise of interest in western culture)
B. great interest in Christian holidays (especially Christmas) w/ store decorations,
carols, etc.
E. ethics of Christianity is admired
V. New Religions (since WWII). A blend of beliefs, syncretistic heterogeneous
mix of Shinto, Buddhist, Christian, and astrological beliefs in the aftermath
of the destruction of WWII.
A. examples: Soka Gakkai and Tenrikyo, each w/ millions of followers
I. Introduction. One of Japans
greatest gifts to the world. Virtually all the martial arts were enhanced
through Japanese contributions; many martial arts have their origin in Japan
A. definition: fighting methods used mostly in defense with or without weapons.
Highly effective technique of self-defense which has practical applications,
but beyond that, serves to develop the character and personality of the practitioner
through training in self-discipline, patience, courtesy, and physical stamina.
B. origin...practical application of techniques and training for self-defense
in a percarious and often dangerous world
1. during the Tokugawa, Nobunaga, 1576 confiscation of all weapons
2. Ronin sometimes turned to banditry and plundering so many developed martial
arts as protection
3. Samurai tradition incorporated a martial way of life II. Types of martial
arts
A. armed
1. samurai (bow/arrows, later swords, various other weapons), evolved into
modern kendo (the way of the sword)
2. ninja (many weapons, esp. those whose use is silent) involves stealth (Crouching
Tiger...). Romanticized but often were simply hired assassins.
3. all weapons have become martial arts tools
B. unarmed
1. oldest is probably a form of jujitsu (twisting, turning the joints to defeat
an opponent)
2. others are judo (gentle way), aikido (Taoist- Shinto, circular strength),
sumo (a variation of wrestling) and, of course, karate (empty hand)
3. may be hard or soft in application (demonstrate)
4. hard styles (mine), uses all solid parts of the body
III. History in Japan...tradition of the Samurai (bushido= the way of the
warrior) Conflict over scarce land resulted in rise of factionalism and fairly
constant warfare, creating a need for military skill.
A. monks, farmers, craftsmen, all without weapons against bandits and marauding
lordless samurai devise methods of self-defense using common tools (stick,
staff, chain, etc.) which eventually become standardized
B. after WWII, martial arts are outlawed by the occupational forces of the
U.S....so they go underground
C. once martial arts are again allowed to be openly practiced, they become
institutionalized...P.E. classes offer judo or kendo; colleges and universities
offer these plus karate, aikido, and others.
D. sumo, an ancient sport of the emperors court, becomes very popular
E. martial arts spread rapidly during periods when they were sponsored and
encouraged by the warring daimyo
F. they were suppressed when rulers felt threatened by disloyal subjects...only
the rulers official military was permitted to practice martial arts (Tokugawa
era and, for example, Funakoshi Senseis experiences in post-WWII Okinawa)
IV. Significance of martial arts in Japan today
A. intrinsic feature of Japanese culture
1. take the place of P.E. throughout formal education from grade school through
university
2. popular passtime
3. national following of major arts (kendo, judo, karate, aikido, and others)
4. founders and major masters are
national heroes, e.g. Jigoro Kano (Judo), Funakoshi Gichin (Karate), etc.
5. grand champions attain national fame and recognition
B. serious students worldwide make a pilgrimage to Japan to train with the
masters
C. martial arts represent (similar to another glorious culture, the ancient
Spartans) the creation of the ideal person, trained in both mind and
body (the first two years or so of martial arts training is body technique
only, after which the mind is simultaneously trained along with advanced body
training)
I. Introduction A. general features
of Japanese cuisine
1. as expected, centered on seafood, both plant and animal (seaweed and the
full range of marine animals (fish, shellfish, virtually all edible creatures
of the sea). A love of marine mammals (esp. the whale) continues to cause
problems as the rest of the world seeks prohibition of whale hunting (except
Norway)
2. terrestrial plantfoods...a great range due to the varied habitat from the
frozen north of Hokkaido to the sub- tropical Okinawan island chain.
3. after the introduction of rice to Japan from China c. 300 B.C., it quickly
became the staple of Japanese meals. It was so essential to Japanese life
that rice was used as currency until the development of a monetary system.
4. terrestrial animal foods...all indigenous animals eaten, some were hunted
out early in Japans history.
a. imported animals abound, esp. chicken
b. beef and milk were consumed until they were prohibited during the preeminence
of Buddhism in Japan (after the 8th century) now are a popular
source of protein in the Japanese diet (esp. after WWII) when the average
adult height of Japanese incr. about 4 inches in one generation
c. Kobe beef is now, many say, the best in the world (hand fed beer, massaged
daily, etc.)
d. often eaten raw or seared
5. small portions are inherent in Japanese cuisine (tiny tastes rather than
a slab of steak hanging off the sides of the platter)
6. similar to Chinese cuisine, dishes and meals are based on the compatability
of colors (5: green, red, yellow, white, and black-purple), tastes (6: one
more than the Chinese; bitter, sour, sweet, spicy, salty, and delicate), textures
(5: hard, soft, jelled, dry, and wet), smells, etc....all designed for balance
and aesthetic appeal a. presentation must be correct b. traditionalists bemoan
the introduction of ramen, fast food, foreign foods, etc.
7. foreign foods introduced in the early 1900s (ice creme, spaghetti, potato
chips, hamburgers, fast food, etc.)
II. Worldwide popularity
A. sushi is now a global food (slightly flavored rice is the base, with seafood,
vegetables, and/or meat, uncooked or brazed, served with soy sauce, pickled
relish or ginger, and wasabi horseradish paste
B. sukiyaki, popular since the beginning of the 1900s, beef, vegetables, bean
curd, and noodles
C. tempura, batter-fried foods, introduced by the Portugtuese, served dry
or over a noodle soup, dipped in a dashi stock (dried kelp, bonito flakes,
water, and soy)
III. Regional variations (see anthology for details, p. 635ff), from sub-arctic
Hokkaido to sub-tropical Ryukyu Islands, different habitats and climates produce
different foods and therefore different tastes. 5 major regional variations:
A. Hokkaido and northern islands...potatoes, diary, corn, beef, salmon
B. Kanto...Tokyo/Yokohama area...dark soy sauce, heavy flavors and tastes
C. Kansai...Kyoto/Osaka area...fermented soy bean soup (miso), delicately
flavored cuisine
D. Nagoya...between Tokyo and Kyoto...known for flat udon noodles and uiro
sweet rice jelly
E. Okinawa (Ryukyu Island chain)...pork and tropical fruits like papaya, pineapple,
etc.
IV. Other aspects of Japanese cuisine
A. O-Bento the portable feast (anthology, p. 636). Some are truly a work of
art, others are the travelers staple. Small, nourishing, multiple tastes.
B. seasonal variations...anthology, p. 637ff
1. New Year foods osechi ryori
2. Springtime...cherry blossom tea, delicate flavors, tastes, bamboo sprouts,
etc.
3. Summertime...grilled eel, octopus, abalone, fresh fruits and vegetables,
cold noodles
4. Autumn...grilled chestnuts, fresh mushrooms, soba noodles (from buckwheat)
5. Wintertime...fugu sashime (blowfish-deadly if not prepared correctly),
o-nabe (one-pot stews)
C. tea is especially important in Japan. From the tea ceremony to the use
of tea in every home, most every meal, as well as between meal refreshments...tea
is everpresent. Many diff. variations (anthology p. 640)
D. the kitchen
1. after WWII, modernization w/ electrical appliances replaced the dark, open-hearth
traditional kitchen
2. lots of bamboo utensils (steamers, mats, shamoji rice scoop, etc.)
E. the Japanese meal
1. kaiseki ryori a dozen or more tiny portions of diff. foods (like Dimsum,
Indian, and Arabic cuisine)
2. basic meal: boiled rice, miso soup, and pickles plus seasonal foods
3. meal is divided into three parts, beginning (appetisers, clear soups, raw
fish, etc.), a middle (seafood, meat, poultry, and vegetables...main courses),
and an end (desserts, pickles, green tea, and fruit)
4. generally, square foods are served on a round plate, round foods on a square
plate. Lots of artistically pleasing dinnerware is displayed during a meal.
5. lots of garnishes used, most are edible (check out the Iron Chef show)
I. The Social Setting...Japan is
far more unified than any other industrialized nation, due mainly to language
commonality.
A. Confucian standards and ethics prevail (men above women, older above younger,
position above other attributes, etc.)
B. ie (household) basic unit of society; consists of a group of related males,
their wives, and children. Traditionally, a three generation household was
the ideal.
1. this is currently changing to nuclear households, as in all other industrialized
nations, particularly since WWII
2. traditionally, various ie would be further grouped into dozoku (several
ie, made up of a broken joint family when all sons other than the eldest move
out when they marry and begin a new ie)
C. relationships are very important (as in China, gwanshi, Japan, wa). Upon
first meeting, people now exchange business cards meishi which have name,
address, etc, plus a persons rank w/in a firm, thus indicating the
hierarchical relationship between the two who have just met (determines how
they interact, how deeply they bow, etc.) (demonstrate the karate standing
bow)
D. keigo (honorific language) is used to maintain ranked society. Also rich
vocabulary of honorific words demonstrate ranking throughout a conversation
(body language of inter- action makes it possible for a bystander to understand
the hierarchical ranking of the two discussants)
E. men and women have different forms of expression as well (women moving
up the corporate ladder assume more mens language, while the speech of many
young men has become more feminized due to the breakdown of sexual linguistic
distinctions).
II. Harmony...group mentality prevails...(Dependency Theory in terms of child-rearing
practices) results in a society where ...harmony arises from proper participation
by individuals in group activities (anthology, p. 666), also Japanese in general
prefer the satisfaction of working with others to individual activity (ibid).
A. marriage...nakodo (go-between) used to strike an agreeable bargain, suitable
to both families. Check family background to ensure they are not eta, criminals,
or whatever.
B. group cooperation...e.g. on exams in TOEFL class (cite examples). People
...willingly assist each other in the completion of specific tasks (anthology,
667).
1. convivial singing, drinking, outings, travel, etc.
2. often resolve group conflict by simply pretending its not real (to maintain
the group is more imp. than individual rights, principles, etc.)
C. individual character development encapsulated in the concept of seishin-shugi
(literally spirituality, but implies the ultimate perfectability of any individual...only
requires hard work, optimism, determination...so attitude is paramount
in child-rearing and in adult behavior (e.g. karate class)
D. those w/ an easy life will never develop strong character
III. Patterns of Life
A. urban dwelling (1980s 75% urban; 1/2 pop. in Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya megalopolises;
only 10% of total land area, so small is beautiful)
1. pollution, crowding, stress
2. break w/ dozoku, so Durkheims anomie (feelings of hopelessness and anonymity
increase)...pattern same as rest of the industrialized world
3. danchi (small low-cost modern apartments; beehives) for younger yuppie
(young, urban, professionals).
4. mortgage= c. 40% of family income; employers often provide homes or help
w/ financing employees homes
5. space is a premium, so few social services (parks, libraries, cultural
centers, etc.)
6. parents are concerned w/ rising city problems such as juvenile delinquency,
crime, drugs, etc.
B. employer loyalty has replaced family loyalty as a life focus (so layoffs
have a particularly disasterous effect on a person)
1. company songs are sung
2. vacations are arranged by the company
3. social interactions away from work are company- centered
4. most companies, at least the larger ones, recruit permanent, life-long
employees (compare my experiences at GM and Coca-Cola Bottling Co.)
C. remainder of this section of the anthology deals w/ women, the aged, and
religion, which are considered elsewhere
I. The Family System...very controversial;
ongoing arguments between traditionalists who want to maintain the values
and behaviors of the traditional family and the reformists who claim that
the traditional family is what is wrong with Japan and it must be changed
immediately
A. positive features...source of patriotism, morality, core of all that is
fine and noble
B. negative features...hindrance to democracy, stronghold of feudalism, ignores
human rights, inhibits individual enterprise, enforces eternal subjugation
of women, fosters totalitarian state mentality
1. Japan accepts the foreign model as a pattern, but much of the foreign model
opposes the traditional family
2. Meiji Restoration attempt to draw up a Civil Code ended in a deadlock,
neither side liked the language
3. changes naturally occur w/ industrialization, modernization, and urbanization
C. family pattern is used as a pattern for employment, recreational, political,
artistic, and other groups w/ father- part, elder-brother-part, etc.
D. according to the creation myth, all Japanese are related since all descended
from Amaterasu the Sun Goddess
E. marriages are arranged at the pleasure of two families, not for the couple
themselves
a. bride price
b. patrilocal post-marital residence rule (both of these constitute institutionalized
sexism, typical of a patriarchal society)
c. divorce is strangely liberal
F. loss of economic function of the family is contributing to its demise (stem
family system is being replaced by the nuclear family system, same as in other
industrialized countries)
G. terms of address w/in the family signify sex and age hierarchy (elder bro,
younger sis, etc. w/ honorific suffixes for those superior to the speaker,
e.g.?)
II. Husbands and wives. Modern changes involve the transition from the extended
family (dozoku) to the focus on the nuclear family (small, newer version of
the ie)
A. modern preeminence of the emotional relationship between husband and wife
has replaced the traditional emphesis on extended kinship rights, roles, and
responsibilities.
B. no longer are the young couple constantly supervised by family elders.
Love and affection can be more freely shown.
C. womens rights have moved to the forefront of social issues. Traditionally,
a basic assumption was that women are biologically inferior to men (see anthology,
p. 698).
D. during the war, couples could be arrested for abekku (being together in
public), all that is undergoing rapid change
E. strict monogamy (no concubinage) is quickly becoming an accepted ideal
F. love has become the basis for marriage (romance marriage over arranged
marriage continues to increase in popularity)
G. eroticism and pornography are considerably less stigmatized than in most
other cultures (though it is not openly displayed in most homes)
H. info in this section of the anthology drawn from a village in the early
1950s (Shitayama-cho)...small sample, w/ respect to arranged vs. romance marriages,
who handles the family money, and who invites friends home for meals
I. divorce is increasingly common (grounds can be no love)
J. Ideal personalities:
1. In response to the questions, What sort of man (woman) do you admire most?,
an interesting modal personality arises, for ideal men...
a. manly, one who has suffered, a man of courage and endurance, strong-willed,
quick, decisive, forceful, etc.
b. other women selected traits such as hard working, steady and reliable,
etc.
2. for ideal women...
a. gracefulness, consideration, devoted to her home, affectionate, hard worker,
not brainy, etc
b. anthology states, ...a mans physical wants are most adequately catered
for by living in a Western-style house with a Japanese wife, who can cook
Chinese food (p. 712).
III. Women (Reischauer article, p. 714)
A. severe job discrimination against women...(paid about 1/2 what men earn
in comparable jobs)
B. women are expected to be puritanical sexually, though pre- marital sex
is not severely sanctioned (double standard, since men are quite free sexually,
though this is changing)
C. customarily sleep with the children (therefore lack marital intimacy),
work five and a half day weels (dont spend much time together)...problems
with maintaining a healthy marriage.
D. Reischauer has seen changes: wives now walk alongside husbands, men often
carry packages and kids, wives drive the car as much as husbands, many men
now help w/ chores
E. education
1. in lower grades, through secondary school, sexes are equal
2. junior colleges are mostly women (but are seen as womens finishing schools)
3. universities (serious education that leads to highly paid power
positions) are 98% male (1950 statistic).
F. tend to marry later 24 for women, 28 for men (three yrs later than in the
U.S.)
G. women comprise more than 1/2 the workforce...about the same representation
in high govt...about 5-10%, as women in the congress of the U.S.
H. the Constitution forbids sex discrimination
IV. Childhood (from Ruth Benedicts The Chrysanthemum and the Sword)...Childrearing
philosophy and techniques tend to build adult character and personality (according
to the Culture and Personality school of anthropology, which Benedict helped
develop)
A. infancy
1. great freedom, little discipline
2. love and desire children (esp. heirs, therefore males)
3. Dependency Theory...infant in skin-to-skin contact most of its early years
4. bathes w/ mother, close and affectionate relationship
5. crawling is discouraged (Japanese trad. house is quite dangerous), so babies
talk before they walk
6. diaper to 3-4 months, then toilet training begins, quite heavy discipline,
using shame, threats, etc., even threat of abandonment (We should get rid
of you) and withholding love (I love people who use the toilet)
7. admonitions of dangerous, dirty, bad, etc. (fear of criticism, ridicule,
and ostracism plague many adults, perhaps as a result)
8. not weaned until a new baby is born (rather late)
B. older sibs care for younger ones and are taught to love them
1. misbehaving older children are taken to the local shrine or temple to be
healed usually by moxa (moxi- bustion)...hurts worse than a spanking, usually
works.
2. daughters even sleep coyly (kinoji character), while sons can sleep sprawled
out (dai character).
3. boys tantrums are usually tolerated, girls are not
C. sexually permissive society (among children), no strong sanction against
masterbation and self-exploration, in some settings, women, especially older
ones, are quite ribald, even obscene in behavior and language (provokes laughter
in mixed crowds)
V. Final comment on the Japanese character...anthology, p. 739... The Japanese
have always been famous for the pleasure they get from innocent things: viewing
the cherry blossoms, the moon, the chrysantemums, or new fallen show; keeping
insects caged in the house for their Ôsong; writing little verses; making
gardens; arranging flowers, and drinking ceremonial tea. These are not activities
of a deeply troubled and aggressive people.
I. Introduction...the Arts as a
window through which we view culture. Herein included: Sumi-E, Haiku, the
Japanese Garden, and the art of Bonsai
A. functions of art...many feel art only serves a recreational or aesthetic
role, but add: spiritual, political, social, emotional, economic, and others
B. types of art...many, we focus here on painting, esp. black ink on absorbent
paper (usually rice paper)
II. Sumi-E article (sumi= black ink, e= picture)
A. is actually a lesson in painting the Four Honorable Gentlemen (shikunshi:
bamboo, chrysanthemum, plum blossom, and orchid)
B. all strokes necessary for calligraphy exist in painting these four natural
objects
C. article also includes info on the four tools necessary for sumi-e painting
(brush, ink, paper, and ink stone)
D. Zen is discussed (white space minimalism...like much good art)...try the
exercises
III. Haiku...already discussed...now you can read some in the anthology
IV. The Japanese Garden...author Ishimoto traveled for five months photographing
gardens throughout Japan
A. art came from China to Japan over 1200 yrs. ago
B. elements of the Japanese garden:
1. small version of nature, but not miniaturized (built for the pleasure of
full-sized adults)
2. mostly evergreens
3. often incorporates water or the suggestion of water (raked pebbles w/ large
stones protruding)
4. meant for quiet solitude, meditation, appreciation of nature
5. walkways, bridges, and gates are common
6. no matter how small the area, people try to have a garden
7. see suggestions in the anthology and try to visit the Burns Japanese garden
on CSULBs lower campus
V. Bonsai (lit.: potted tree), replica of an actual tree, miniaturized and
planted in an artistically pleasing pot.
A. elements of bonsai:
1. not cruel to the plants...actually live longer and are much healthier than
most plants in the wild (hand grown and fed)
2. provide great pleasure to practitioners (should be grown outdoors)
3. see characteristics of a good bonsai (anthology, p. 805)
4. involves careful selection of a specimen, pruning (roots and branches),
wiring trunk/branches, watering, feeding, etc.
5. some are begun by retrieving them from the tree line of mountains or changing
microclimates
6. best are maple, most fruit trees, most firs, dogwood, and others
7. most live quite long with careful nurturing (hundreds of
years)
Introduction...Based on the foundation of traditional Japan, the changes that occurred particularly in the late 1800s, transformed the culture into what it is today.
A.1868-1912...a period of great change from feudalism and strict social hierarchy to attempting to build a classless society (see the Charter Oath in the Morton text, p. 149ff) B. Modernization was the keynote...at any price, regardless of opposition or obstacle C. attempted to develop Western science while maintaining Eastern ethics. D. national unification was another goal, to overcome the divisiveness of the Tokugawa era, and to encourage everyone to work to create a modern nation
II. Features of the Meiji period
A. centralization...capital moved
to Edo (renamed Tokyo Eastern Capital) 1. all internal tolls and
other economic barriers were removed
2. entire govt restructured, patterned after European and American models,
for the most part B. infrastructural development (rails, harbors, communication,
etc.) C. passed laws prohibiting samurai swords in public (destroying
the power of the samurai) D. military arms, military academies,
universal conscription, building a navy, etc. develop the nations strength
(ominously) E. statesmen and students sent abroad to absorb the
strengths of other nations and to bring that back to Japan to speed the
process of modernization
F. studied foreign literature, art, science, etc...great apetite
for change G. clothing and hair styles were westernized
H. industry at the expense of agriculture created shortages of food, starvation,
etc. I. zaibatsu (financial clique firms) developed such as Mitsui,
Mitsubishi, Yasuda, Asano, and others J. 1889, the first Constitution
in Asia was adopted under the Meiji,
with representative govt K. newspapers were published and Japan
became the most literate nation on Earth III. Militarization lead to
imperialism (first Taiwan, Korea, Manchuria, etc., later much of Asia and
the Pacific Islands)
A. 1890s to the end of WWII, Japan attempted to expand its resource base,
throughout Asia and the Pacific Islands.
1. 1895, defeated China (Treaty of Shimonoseki)
2. 1905, defeated Russia over Manchuria
3. 1910, annexed Korea
4. 1914, WWI, Japan moved into China proper took over German possessions in
Shandung province, and Germanys Pacific Islands (Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall
Islands)
B. 1917 Treaty of Versailles at end of WWI, recognized Japan as one of the
world leaders w/ a seat in the League of Nations
C. invaded China in early 1930s (Rape of Nanking in 1937)
D. actual beginning of WWII, 1937, when China begins to resist the Japanese
invasion
E. U.S. enters the war w/ the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Dec. 7, 1941...nuclear
weapons used on civilian populations of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 brought
the war to an end.
F. read the text regarding postwar Japan, Japan today, and contemporary Japanese
society (foundation for the course Modern Asia)
IV. Modernization...associated w/ industrialization and urbanization (see
Morton text p. 149ff), initially involved:
A. a new Constitution in 1868
B. centralization (entire nation becomes one)
C. compensation and finance (to the various daimyo and samurai) in exchange
for their national loyalty
D. the development of the army and navy
E. transformation of the educational system
F. the development of industry (infrastructure first)
G. expansion overseas (first through trade, later imperialism)
H. the economic miracle (Morton, p. 213)
1. lifetime employment
2. subcontracting
3. labor unions
4. personal savings (18-22% of income vs. 5-9% in U.S.)
5. national cooperation (govt, management, and labor)
I. Japan is now post-industrial (evolved beyond smokestack industries of steel
manufacture, railroads, etc.)...instead Japan has become a world leader in
the manufacture of automobiles and electronics